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Children with heart disease may require repeated X-Ray cardiac catheterization procedures, are more radiosensitive, and more likely to survive to experience oncologic risks of medical radiation. Cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) is radiation-free and offers information about structure, function, and perfusion but not hemodynamics. We intend to perform complete radiation-free diagnostic right heart catheterization entirely using CMR fluoroscopy guidance in an unselected cohort of pediatric patients; we report the feasibility and safety.
Clinical cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) catheterization was first reported over a decade ago using adjunctive X-Ray [6] and has continued to evolve [7]. We previously described our initial experience with CMR guided right heart catheterization in adults [8]. In systematic comparison of patients undergoing both comprehensive transfemoral right heart catheterization under CMR fluoroscopy and under X-Ray guidance, we found comparable total procedural time and more success entering the left pulmonary artery under CMR. Since that report, our adult clinical center weighed the prospect of direct benefit (radiation-free, additional diagnostic information) and favorable risk profile and classified CMR heart catheterization as the preferred clinical standard for adult patients requiring right heart catheterization.
CMR used the following typical parameters. SSFP re-binning [11, 12] for function acquired 20 seconds per slice during free breathing: repetition time (TR)/echo time (TE), 2.8/1.2 ms; flip angle, 50°; bandwidth, 977 Hz/pixel; field of view (FOV), 360x270 mm; matrix, 256x192 pixels; slice thickness/gap, 8/2mm; spatial resolution 1.5 x 1.5 mm; retrospectively gated with 30 cardiac phases.
Complete radiation-free CMR right heart catheterization was accomplished in all subjects (Table 2). CMR right heart catheterization procedure time was short (12 ± 5 min for one condition; 31 ± 10 min for two conditions). CMR right heart catheterization times in the first half (14 ± 5 min) trended longer than in the second half (11 ± 4 min, p = 0.05; one hemodynamic condition) of this experience. All procedures were performed by one of two pediatric interventional cardiologists each with more than five years of experience. One operator had no previous experience with CMR fluoroscopy guidance.
Comprehensive radiation-free CMR right heart catheterization was completed on all subjects with no cases of bailout to X-Ray. There were no cases of premature termination of CMR catheterization. There were no safety events related to CMR catheterization or general anesthesia administered in CMR. Subject temperature rise during CMR was minimal (0.3 ± 0.4 degrees Celsius).
We report a series of children undergoing comprehensive radiation-free CMR fluoroscopy guided right heart catheterization, which was successful in all cases with no complications. Two subjects with septal defects had radiation-free CMR right and left heart catheterization. Post-heart transplant was the leading indication for CMR right heart catheterization in our study population. The majority of enrolled subjects had at least one previous X-Ray cardiac catheterization and half of all subjects had multiple previous X-Ray cardiac catheterizations. Many subjects had retained thoracic surgical or catheterization implants. Twenty percent of procedures required testing of multiple hemodynamic conditions; a majority of these procedures were performed with zero fluoroscopy time (70%). A small number of subjects were previously initiated and maintained on continuous vasopressor (milrinone) infusion for poor cardiac function during CMR catheterization. There were no CMR related safety events.
This work was a measured step toward routine radiation-free CMR-guided catheterization in children. It is noteworthy that all subjects had successful radiation-free CMR right heart catheterization without complications. Previous work in the field focused on congenital heart disease [6], pulmonary hypertension [14], and adult CMR catheterization [8]. The latter work demonstrated the feasibility of entirely CMR guided right heart catheterization, which is now the clinical standard at our adult institution. We aim to offer the same for children. Diagnostic right and left heart catheterization was demonstrated live at the 2017 Society for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Annual Scientific Sessions ( =dTXMnEhb7bA) [15].
Radiation-free CMR guided right heart catheterization is feasible and safe in pediatric patients using largely commercially available hardware, software, and catheters. CMR fluoroscopy guidance does not preclude patients with previously implanted metallic implants, continuous hemodynamic vasopressor infusions, or testing needed in multiple conditions. Children requiring multiple, serial X-Ray cardiac catheterizations may benefit most from radiation sparing. This work represents real world application of real-time CMR guidance for routine cardiac catheterization in children. It is an incremental step toward wholly CMR fluoroscopy guided diagnostic cardiac catheterization and in the future CMR guided cardiac intervention.
"The stage based on the classic 'Rally of 1000 Lakes' plays true to form. Ultra fast sweeping roads, perilous jumps and lots of trees all combine to give you a totally unrelenting driving experience. Make sure you listen very carefully to navigator Nicky Grist - 'Six left and flat right over six crest, flat right over jump and six left over jump, and flat right tightens, over jump...' Problem is, flat isn't easy flat - you need to position the car very carefully, which is not simple at the best of times with the wonderful new physics model, let alone when you're doing 120kph over blind crests, on stages where the slightest deviation off the line will see you bury the car into the nearest tree."
Much like in CMR, most of the countries are locked and you need to finish in the top 6 in championship mode to unlock the next set. In a sport where you don't get to familiarise yourself with the course before you start, I felt this worked nicely in the original and still does this time around. In addition, the difficulty of the stages is carefully controlled to ease you into the new driving style required. The early stages are broad and sweeping, but later stages become very tricky and can be plagued by bad weather. CMR2 now gives you 10 stages per country as opposed to 6 in the original, each set across two or three days to give the feel of a real event.
CMR2 is a good looking game. Everything from the chic menus to the car models has been refined extensively from CMR1. The cars in particular are stunning, and on full detail with cubic mapping enabled, they shine and reflect the scenery beautifully. The game provides excellent frame rates even in split-screen mode with a good sensation of speed that gives the driving that exhilarating edge. Best of all though is the replay feature which lets you relive the action TV-style by use of some very imaginative camera angles. It's so good that you'd think there'd be an option to rewind or save them, but surprisingly there isn't. This is one hell of a missed opportunity.
The landscapes are fully detailed and varied, but it's similarly pleasing to see so much variety in the roads themselves. They twist and lurch and dip unpredictably with many stages featuring at least one vicious section ready to take you by surprise, and tight reflexes are required to keep the car out of the scenery. To this end, it's vital that you listen to Nicky Grist, Colin's long suffering co-driver. Nicky reads out "pacenotes" that describe the oncoming road, but unlike in other games where the upcoming corner is described by its severity, the pacenotes in CMR2 grade the corners by the gear in which the car should be in. This is the system currently used by Colin McRae and it's fantastic. It takes a large part of the thinking out of the driving and makes it easier for newcomers to get accustomed to the game, whilst at the same time still providing plenty of scope for more experienced players to improvise to improve their times.
Another low point is with the graphics engine itself. Whilst it can shift plenty of detail at a high rate, the technique of using lots of 2D bitmapped trees to cover up a landscape-wallpapered barrier on either side of the road is now looking very long in the tooth, no matter what the resolution you're playing at. The 2D nature of the obstacles is in fact very distracting, and they can be frustrating to extract yourself from after a collision. It looked great two years ago but just doesn't cut it today, especially when the likes of Pro Rally 2001 offer fully rendered 3D landscaping as far as the eye can see.
Where the original really paid off though was in the brilliant car handling, giving us cars that could slide freely at a time when all other rally games made theirs run on rails. CMR2 has thankfully retained this and tweaked it in order to enhance the effects of different setups and road conditions. It's a real pleasure to powerslide and generally throw these cars around. However, these being World Rally Cars, you need to remember that there is a lot of power on demand, and letting the car slide out wildly on the narrower stages will not get you far. Success in CMR2 only comes once you've learnt the arts of left-foot braking (split axes are supported), lift-off oversteer, the good ol' lever-steering (translation: yanking the handbrake) and any other method you can think of to get the car to make the corners in a fast but controlled way.
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